Light vehicles - International Council on Clean Transportation https://theicct.org/sector/light-vehicles/ Independent research to benefit public health and mitigate climate change Wed, 28 May 2025 08:37:26 +0000 en-US hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=6.7.1 https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/favicon-150x150.png Light vehicles - International Council on Clean Transportation https://theicct.org/sector/light-vehicles/ 32 32 European Market Monitor: Cars and vans (April 2025) https://theicct.org/publication/european-market-monitor-cars-vans-april-2025-may25/ Wed, 28 May 2025 08:35:23 +0000 https://theicct.org/?post_type=publication&p=63091 European market monitor for cars and vans offers data on new registrations and estimates of manufacturers’ compliance with CO2 emission targets in April 2025.

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Passenger car registrations

The average share of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) among total new registrations in Europe increased 1 percentage point to 17% in April 2025, up from 16% in March. While several manufacturer pools had decreases in BEV shares of 1 or 2 percentage points in April compared with the previous month, including the BMW, Mercedes-Volvo-Polestar, Hyundai, Tesla-Stellantis-Toyota, and Renault pools, other pools increased their shares. The 19% BEV share of the Volkswagen pool was a notable jump of 7 percentage points over its 2024 average. The BMW pool had the highest BEV share in April (24%) and was followed by Mercedes-Volvo-Polestar (22%) and Kia (21%). The Hyundai pool (16% BEV share) was below the European average, as were SAIC (13%), the Tesla-Stellantis-Toyota pool (12%), the Renault pool (11%), and Nissan (9%). Shares of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) among new registrations in Europe increased slightly to 9% in April (from 8% in March 2025), and the Mercedes-Volvo-Polestar pool led with a 24% PHEV share. Nissan had the largest share of full hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) in April (40%) and the BMW and Mercedes-Volvo-Polestar pools led in new registration shares of mild hybrid electric vehicles (MHEVs) at 39% and 38%, respectively.

Figure 1. Share of battery electric in new passenger car registrations in Europe

Figure 2. Average CO2 emissions of manufacturer pools and individual manufacturers compared with estimated 2025-2027 targets, 2025 YTD

Note: Includes compliance credits. All CO2 values are estimates according to the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP). Only manufacturer pools and individual manufacturers with at least 1% market share YTD are shown. See the section on definitions, data sources, methodology, and assumptions for more.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions among manufacturer pools averaged 102 g CO2/km in April 2025. As a result, manufacturing pools are 9 g CO2/km from the average target of 93 g CO2/km for the 2025–2027 period. The Volkswagen pool reduced its target gap by 2 g CO2/km compared with the previous month. The BMW pool is currently in compliance with its 2025–2027 target, and Nissan (29 g CO2/km above) is the farthest from reaching its target.

Looking at individual car brands with market shares of 1% or greater, apart from Tesla, Volvo had the greatest over-compliance at 27 g CO2/km below its projected brand-level average target for 2025–2027, and it was followed by Cupra (17 g CO2/km below target). Mazda and Nissan currently have the largest target gaps at 29 CO2/km each. While Audi’s target gap remains sizable at 28 CO2/km, that is a 2 g CO2/km reduction from the previous month, and Ford (25 CO2/km) and Mercedes-Benz (23 CO2/km) also reduced their target gaps by 1 CO2/km each.

Table 1. Share of battery electric, plug-in hybrid, full hybrid, and mild hybrid passenger cars by manufacturer pool or large manufacturer not forming a pool

Table 2. Fleet-average CO2 emissions of new passenger cars and market share by manufacturer pool or large manufacturer not forming a pool

Table 3. Fleet-average CO2 emissions of new passenger cars and market share by manufacturer group and brand

Passenger car registrations by country

Looking at the major European markets, total passenger car registrations in France, Belgium, and the Netherlands fell 6%, 5%, and 4%, respectively, in April 2025 compared with April 2024, and Italy surpassed France in market size. New registrations increased 16% in Austria, 10% in Sweden, and 9% in Czechia compared with April 2024. Combined BEV and PHEV market shares held steady at 24% in Europe YTD in 2025. Norway (96%), Denmark (68%), Sweden (59%), and the Netherlands (53%) all had combined shares above 50%, and Belgium (41%), Austria (30%), and Germany (27%) also recorded combined BEV and PHEV market shares above the average for Europe. Among the largest markets, the highest increase in BEV registrations occurred in Italy, Czechia, and Poland, where registrations increased 110%, 109%, and 103%, respectively, in April 2025 compared with April 2024; registrations in France and the Netherlands remained similar to April 2024. In Germany, BEV registrations continue to rise, with over 45,500 BEVs registered in April, a market share of 19%. As Europe’s largest market, Germany’s 54% increase in total BEVs registered over April 2024 is noteworthy. Registrations of PHEVs increased the most in Poland (+125%) in April 2025 compared with April 2024 and HEV registrations increased the most in Austria (+79%). Shares of MHEVs were the highest in Italy (31%) and Poland (29%) in April, and they are gaining popularity in Sweden, Austria, and France, where registrations increased 55%, 51%, and 50%, respectively, in April 2025 compared with April 2024.
Figure 3. Share of plug-in hybrid and battery electric passenger cars by country, including information on market size (total new car registrations)

Note: “Other” includes EEA countries not individually highlighted in the figure, except for Bulgaria, Liechtenstein, and Malta.

Table 4. New passenger car registrations by country

Table 5. New battery electric, plug-in hybrid, hybrid, and mild hybrid passenger car registrations by country

Table 6. Share of new battery electric, plug-in hybrid, full hybrid, and mild hybrid passenger cars by country

PASSENGER CAR REGISTRATIONS BY OWNER

Private cars made up over 40% of new registrations in Europe in 2024, and these were followed by company fleets with 36%, and then car dealers and manufacturers and short-term rentals, which made up 14% and 9% of the total registrations, respectively. Short-term rental registrations fluctuated more than other owner types; they ranged from nearly 13% of sales in May 2024 to only 5% in October 2024. In March 2025, the split of new registrations by owner type largely mirrored that of March 2024.

Figure 4 New passenger car registrations by owner for 19 select European countries

Spotlight: Spain

In Spain, registrations of new BEVs and PHEVs are showing strong growth in 2025, with YTD sales up 55% compared with the same period in 2024. Total new passenger car registrations YTD increased by 13% over the same period in 2024. This growth is partly driven by a surge in vehicle sales in the Valencian Community, backed by the Spanish government’s Plan Reinicia Auto+; this is a recovery initiative launched in response to the DANA weather event of October 2024, which caused the loss of approximately 120,000 vehicles. The plan provides subsidies of up to €10,000 for new BEVs and PHEVs purchased to replace insured vehicles written off due to DANA. Meanwhile, subsidies for other Euro 6-compliant powertrain types are limited to half that amount. As of March 2025, about 14% of subsidy requests were for BEVs and PHEVs, while HEVs accounted for 40%. The Valencian Community has seen a 141% YTD increase in new BEV registrations compared with the same period in 2024; this is the second-highest growth among Spain’s autonomous regions and the strongest among the country’s largest regional markets. Registrations of PHEVs rose even more sharply, with a 160% increase YTD over the same period in 2024, the highest of all of Spain’s autonomous regions. 

Moreover, in April 2025, the Spanish government reactivated the MOVES III program, an incentive scheme aimed at promoting the purchase of new zero- and low-emission vehicles and the installation of private and publicly accessible electric vehicle chargers. Originally launched in 2021, the program was extended (with retroactive effect from January 1) and will remain in force either until the end of 2025 or until the allocated €400 million in funding is exhausted. Incentives for the purchase of new electric vehicles with an electric range exceeding 90 km are €4,500 per vehicle, and that rises to €7,000 if a vehicle older than 7 years is scrapped as part of the transaction. For the installation of chargers, private individuals are eligible to receive 70%–80% of the installation costs. 

Figure 5. Share of battery electric and plug-in hybrid electric in new passenger car registrations in Spain

Definitions, data sources, methodology, and assumptions
  • Manufacturer pools: Automakers are allowed to form pools to jointly comply with CO2 targets. For this publication, the 2025 pools listed in the European Commission’s “M1 pooling list”, version of 15 March 2025, is used. 2024 closed pools from this list have been carried over into 2025, even in the absence of a 2025 formal declaration, as they typically remain stable due to ongoing commercial affiliations (e.g., the BMW, Hyundai, and Kia pools). In contrast, only open pools that have been confirmed for 2025 are included, as their composition tends to change more frequently than closed pools. Additionally, it is assumed that the Renault Group forms a closed passenger car pool in 2025 with its affiliated manufacturers. The main brands are: BMW pool (BMW, Mini), Hyundai pool (Hyundai), Kia pool (Kia), Mercedes-Volvo-Polestar pool (Mercedes-Benz, Polestar, Smart, Volvo), Renault pool (Dacia, Renault), Tesla-Stellantis-Toyota pool (Citroën, Fiat, Ford, Jeep, Mazda, Opel, Peugeot, Suzuki, Tesla, Toyota), Volkswagen (Audi, Cupra, Porsche, SEAT, Škoda, VW). Nissan and SAIC are large passenger car manufacturers not part of a pool. 
  • Abbreviations: AC = alternating current; CO2 = carbon dioxide emissions; DC = direct current; g/km = grams per kilometer; YTD = year-to-date; ZLEV = zero- and low-emission vehicle. 
  • Technical scope: This publication focuses on new passenger car registrations. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are powered exclusively by an electric motor, with no additional source of propulsion. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) combine a conventional combustion engine with an electric propulsion system that can be recharged via an external power source. Hybrid electric vehicles here include full hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and mild hybrid electric vehicles (MHEVs). HEVs and MHEVs integrate two propulsion systems, usually a combustion engine and an electric propulsion system that cannot be recharged via an external power source. Key differences between HEVs and MHEVs are the system voltage and system power. This enables HEVs to drive partially pure electric, while the electric propulsion system of MHEVs is typically only capable of assisting the combustion engine. For more on HEVs and MHEVs see: Jan Dornoff et al., Mild-Hybrid Vehicles: A Near Term Technology Trend for CO2 Emissions Reduction (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2022), https://theicct.org/publication/mild-hybrid-emissions-jul22/. 
  • Geographic scope: The European CO2 regulation for vehicle manufacturers applies to all countries of the European Economic Area (EEA). This includes the 27 Member States of the European Union plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway. Data for new car registrations and shares of electric vehicles in this publication cover all of these countries, with the exception of Cyprus, Liechtenstein and Malta. Data for CO2 emission levels additionally omits Bulgaria and Romania.  
  • Data sources: Dataforce (new vehicle registrations), European Environment Agency (vehicle mass and eco-innovation credits). Historical values are regularly updated to reflect all latest data available. 
  • Results may change over time: Registrations and/or CO2 data may be retrospectively updated by some of the national type-approval authorities. 
  • Test procedures: CO2 values are provided according to the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP). 
  • Flexible compliance mechanisms: To facilitate meeting their CO2 targets, manufacturers can make use of a number of compliance mechanisms: (1) Manufacturers can reduce their CO2 level by up to 6 g/km by deploying eco-innovation technologies. As a conservative estimate, we apply the 2023 level of eco-innovation CO2 emission reductions per brand. For more on the methodology used, see: Uwe Tietge, Peter Mock, and Jan Dornoff, Overview and Evaluation of Eco-Innovations in European Passenger Car CO2 Standards (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2018), https://theicct.org/publications/eco-innovations-european-passenger-car-co2-standards; (2) If a manufacturer’s ZLEV share exceeds 25% (cars) or 17% (vans), its CO2 target is increased by the same number of percentage points, up to a maximum of 5%. This adjustment is referred to as the ZLEV factor, while the target before adjustment is called the manufacturer reference target. The manufacturer target is calculated by multiplying the reference target by the ZLEV factor. ZLEVs are BEVs and vehicles with CO2 emissions of 50 g/km (WLTP) or less. For details on the ZLEV factor mechanism, see: Jan Dornoff, CO2 emission standards for new passenger cars and vans in the European Union (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2023), https://theicct.org/publication/eu-co2-standards-cars-vans-may23/.  
  • Mass-based targets: For each manufacturer or manufacturer pool, a specific 2025 CO2 target value applies, depending on the average WLTP test mass of the new vehicles registered. For this publication, we assume the average WLTP test mass per manufacturer pool remains the same as in 2023; the average 2023 BEV and non-BEV test mass for each manufacturer was calculated based on EEA data and then weighted according to their year-to-date 2025 BEV market shares. For more on the methodology used, see: Uwe Tietge, Jan Dornoff, and Peter Mock, CO2 Emissions From New Passenger Cars in Europe: Car Manufacturers’ Performance in 2023 (International Council Clean Transportation, 2024), https://theicct.org/publication/co2-emissions-new-pv-europe-car-manufacturers-performance-2023-sept24/. 
  • 2025-2027 averaging: Rather than being required to meet the CO2 target applying from 2025 onwards in each individual year, manufacturers are granted the flexibility to comply based on their average CO2 emissions over the three-year period 2025-2027. This means that manufacturers may exceed their CO2 targets in one or more years, provided that any excess emissions are balanced out by equivalent over-compliance in other years within the averaging period. For more details on the provision, see ICCT, Public comments on the European Commission proposal to introduce a 3-year “averaging” provision for the CO2 standards regulation for new cars and vans (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2025), https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/PublicComments-Averaging-final-27March.pdf. 
  • Owner types: This publication considers four types of owners: private cars, company fleets, short-term rentals, and car dealers and manufacturers. The private car category includes all registrations under private individuals, including those of self-employed persons, provided the vehicles are not registered under a company name. Private leasing is also included. Company fleets encompass all vehicles registered to companies, excluding those intended for resale or rental. This category includes company and public administration fleets, commercial long-term rentals, commercial leases, taxis, driving schools, diplomats, etc. The size of the fleet and the extent to which the vehicles are used privately are not considered relevant. The short-term rentals type covers all registrations under large or small national and local rental companies. It also covers all vehicles flagged by authorities as being used for self-drive rental purposes. The car dealers and manufacturers type includes all vehicles registered by car dealers and manufacturers. For automakers, this includes vehicles used for press purposes as well as those for their employees. New registrations data by owner type is aggregated for the following 19 European countries: Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and United Kingdom. 

 

 

This publication is a collaboration between the ICCT, IMT-IDDRI, and ECCO think tank.

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]]> Maria Vega Gonzalo https://theicct.org/team-member/maria-vega-gonzalo/ Thu, 22 May 2025 14:23:29 +0000 https://theicct.org/?post_type=team-member&p=62807 Maria is an Associate Researcher based in Berlin. Her work focuses on CO2 emissions and energy consumption of passenger cars and heavy-duty vehicles. Prior to joining ICCT, she completed her Ph.D. in Civil Engineering Systems within the Colaborative Doctoral Partnership between the Transport Research Center of the Technical University of Madrid and the Economics of […]

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]]> Maria is an Associate Researcher based in Berlin. Her work focuses on CO2 emissions and energy consumption of passenger cars and heavy-duty vehicles.

Prior to joining ICCT, she completed her Ph.D. in Civil Engineering Systems within the Colaborative Doctoral Partnership between the Transport Research Center of the Technical University of Madrid and the Economics of Climate Change, Energy and Transport Unit of the Joint Research Center of the European Commission. During this time, she combined her doctoral project, which analyzed the impact of shared mobility services on car dependency in European cities from a behavioral perspective, with contributions to science-for-policy projects such as the 100 Neutral Cities mission.

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]]> Flexibility or uncertainty? Risks of the proposed changes to the UK Zero Emission Vehicle Mandate https://theicct.org/risks-of-the-proposed-changes-to-the-uk-zero-emission-vehicle-mandate-may25/ Thu, 22 May 2025 00:35:24 +0000 https://theicct.org/?p=62710 The UK’s updated ZEV mandate keeps long-term targets but adds flexibilities that could undermine short-term certainty and investment.

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The UK Department for Transport (DfT) published the outcome of the consultation on its zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) regulation last month and it generally signals more flexibility and some relaxation of the policy. Let’s take a look at a few reasons to celebrate, a few areas of concern, and a few key points where the yet-to-be-determined details will make a big difference. 

I’ll start with some good news: There are no changes to the regulation’s annual targets for 2025–2030. Regardless of flexibilities, the annual targets set the pace for reductions in emissions, and the targets are staying at 80% ZEVs for cars and 70% ZEVs for vans in 2030. (Here ZEVs include battery electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicles, but not plug-in hybrids or vehicles using e-fuels.) This remains a world-leading regulation. The United Kingdom also remains committed to 100% ZEV sales for cars and vans in 2035, as DfT reiterated that there are no exceptions to that target. 

Now, about the newly proposed flexibilities. The regulation includes two “big” ones: (1) transfer of credits for sales of non-ZEVs with lower carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and (2) borrowing. Both were extended through 2029, rather than expiring after 2026, as originally planned. In terms of the borrowing flexibility, the limits for cars in the extended years are relatively low—20% in 2027, 15% in 2028, and 10% in 2029 (roughly aligned with the ICCT’s suggestions). All borrowed allowances must be repaid by 2030 and there’s no mention of lowering or removing the 3.5% “interest rate” applied when these are used. Maintaining that interest for the duration of the policy would be critical for encouraging timely compliance and sticking to the United Kingdom’s legally binding carbon budgets. 

A large opening for PHEVs 

The much bigger change is to the ability to earn credit in the ZEV scheme by reducing the average CO2 emissions of non-ZEVs. This flexibility was originally strictly limited: It was only available in 2024, 2025, and 2026, and these sales could only account for a declining fraction of a manufacturer’s overall ZEV mandate compliance. This reflected the reality that automakers had already invested in hybrids and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and couldn’t change their product mixes dramatically in the near term. It allowed them to get credit for the reduced emissions from those vehicles while still requiring a focus on ZEVs in the medium term. Table 1 shows both the original (current) limits and the newly proposed limits on how much manufacturers can use this flexibility for cars as a percentage of their annual ZEV credit requirement.  

Table 1. Original and proposed new limits on the transfer of non-ZEV CO2 credits for cars in the UK ZEV regulation
  2024  2025  2026  2027  2028  2029  2030 
Original (current)  65%  45%  25%  0%  0%  0%  0% 
Proposed flexibility in consultation outcome  65%  90%  80%  70%  60%  50%  0% 

As you can see, the consultation outcome allows for a relatively high portion of transfers through 2029. The changes to compliance with the ZEV sales requirement make the overall regulation function more like a technology-neutral CO2 standard, at least for the next 3 years or so. This is bad news for any certainty regarding future ZEV sales (and hurts the case for investing in charging infrastructure and ZEV supply chains), but the impact on total CO2 savings from the regulation is difficult to forecast. That’s in part because of the way PHEVs are treated in the consultation outcome.  

Although the United Kingdom is adopting new PHEV utility factors in line with the Euro 6e emission standard, it will allow manufacturers to submit the “old” PHEV CO2 scores, which are known to be artificially low, for the purposes of complying with the non-ZEV CO2 score. And it’s not clear how long this will last. When combined with the relaxed limits on non-ZEV CO2 transfer, this has the effect of making PHEVs a very compelling option for compliance. PHEVs would effectively provide more than 0.5 ZEV credits per vehicle, especially as more longer-range PHEVs are coming on the market. So, while PHEVs don’t count as ZEVs, the regulation now rewards their sale much more than before, particularly in the early years. 

How could this look in practice? The figure below illustrates a scenario in which manufacturers maximize the credit transfers and sell more PHEVs. Here all PHEVs match the specifications of the Volkswagen Tiguan eHybrid, which was the best-selling PHEV in the United Kingdom in the first quarter of 2025, and we assume that manufacturers do not use any borrowing. Manufacturers may also sell PHEVs to comply with the non-ZEV CO2 standard (which does not require any reductions from 2021–2030), but these cannot be double-counted in the ZEV standard and are not shown in the figure. The new changes to the UK regulation mean that in 2025, hardly any ZEV sales would be required at all, and through 2029, manufacturers could comply by selling more PHEVs than ZEVs. 

Figure 1. Maximum contribution of PHEVs to ZEV mandate compliance before and after proposed changes

Important decisions are still to come

Of course, the ZEV mandate isn’t the only policy influencing the market. If PHEVs don’t receive fiscal incentives or tax benefits, most manufacturers are unlikely to pursue a PHEV-heavy compliance pathway. Thus, whether the flexibilities create a sort of PHEV “lock-in” in the United Kingdom is probably going to depend on when DfT switches to using the new utility factors and how PHEVs are taxed.

Because the consultation remains “subject to further engagement with industry on detailed legislation,” switching to the Euro 6e PHEV utility factors as soon as possible, and no later than January 1, 2028, is an important opportunity to strengthen the policy. It’s also worth exploring whether the limits on flexibilities could be tightened more quickly, and it’s important to maintain the interest rate on borrowing.

Taken as a whole, this regulation keeps the United Kingdom among the global leaders. When thinking in terms of long-term climate goals, the most important opportunity is to lock in the 100% ZEVs by 2035 ambition by finalizing the regulation for 2031–2035. This would provide a solid signal of the medium- and long-term trajectory of the market and ensure that all stakeholders—including vehicle manufacturers, fleets, charging providers, and electricity grid operators—are ready to invest and make the United Kingdom’s ZEV transition a success.

Author

Dale Hall
Program Lead

Related Reading

What the European Union can learn from the United Kingdom’s EV success in 2024—and what’s next on both sides of the Channel

The United Kingdom’s zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) mandate provides evidence that ambitious regulation can help accelerate market electrification.

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]]> Belgium’s tax incentives drive electric vehicles in corporate fleets https://theicct.org/belgiums-tax-incentives-drive-electric-vehicles-in-corporate-fleets-may25/ Mon, 19 May 2025 07:39:22 +0000 https://theicct.org/?p=60217 Highlights how progressive, targeted government policies can help grow the battery electric car market in Belgium.

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There has been a remarkable rise in new battery electric vehicle (BEV) registrations in Belgium over the last few years, with nearly 128,000 units registered in 2024, a 37% increase over the previous year. The growth between 2022 and 2023 was even more impressive, as new registrations grew by 148% (Figure 1). This case highlights how progressive, targeted government policies can help grow the BEV market. Let’s dive into it.

Figure 1. Total new registrations of battery electric cars by year in Belgium

Sources: ACEA and the European Alternative Fuels Observatory  

In 2024, more than one in four new passenger cars registered in Belgium was a BEV (28%). This percentage was significantly higher than in other key European markets, including the United Kingdom (20%), France (17%), and Germany (14%), as shown in Table 1. From 2023 to 2024, Belgium recorded the largest growth in BEV shares among these markets, with an increase of almost 9 percentage points.

Table 1. Shares of battery electric cars in new registrations in key markets  

  2024  2023  Percentage point change 2024 vs. 2023 
Belgium  28%  20%  +8.9 
United Kingdom  20%  17%  +3.0 
France  17%  17%  +0.1 
Germany  14%  18%  -4.9 
Spain  6%  5%  +0.2 
Italy  4%  4%  0.0 

Source: ACEA  

Companies are vital to these changes. In 2024, company cars accounted for 62% of the over 448,000 new passenger car registrations in Belgium; that’s about 276,000 cars, 40% of them BEVs. In comparison, private individuals registered around 172,000 passenger cars, just 10% of them BEVs. Of the almost 128,000 new BEVs registered in 2024, 87% were by companies. Additionally, by the fourth quarter of 2024, there were nearly 74,000 charging points accessible to the public in Belgium, a 66% jump over the same quarter the previous year.

This isn’t surprising when you consider that a key piece of legislation implemented in Belgium in December 2021 encouraged the uptake of zero-emission vehicles in company fleets. One part of the story in Belgium involves tax deductions for company cars. This approach is gradually discouraging the acquisition of traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) and plug-in-hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) while offering benefits for BEVs and fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). For ICEVs purchased, leased, or rented by companies between July 2023 and December 2025, the tax deduction will drop from a maximum of 100% until end 2024 to 0% by January 2028 (Table 2). On the other hand, BEVs and FCEVs bought or leased until December 2026 will still benefit from a full 100% tax deduction; starting January 2027, deductible rates on these will also decrease to a maximum of 67.5% by 2031.

Table 2. Tax deductibility for company cars in Belgium by fuel type (status: April 2025)
LPG = liquefied petroleum gas; CNG = compressed natural gas

The second part of the story is the private use of a company car by an employee. If an employee has the permission by his employer to use a company car for personal purposes, this is a taxable benefit. Consequently, it will be treated as part of an employee’s income and taxed accordingly. The private use of a company car by an employee is a common practice in Europe. In Belgium, the benefit in kind (BIK) is calculated based on factors like car catalogue value, fuel type, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and registration date. The rates for BEVs and FCEVs have remained stable, while CO2 emission rates and minimum benefit amounts for ICEVs have become stricter over the past decade. The solidarity contribution, also known as the CO2 contribution, is the employer’s obligation; this is a monthly charge based on the vehicle’s CO2 emissions, fuel type, and an indexation coefficient. Since July 2023, an “increase coefficient multiplier” has been added for ICEVs. For example, in 2024, the yearly solidarity contribution for a diesel car with CO2 emissions of 129 g/km exceeded €1,900, whereas for a BEV it was less than €400.

Figure 2 shows selected policies and monthly shares of new BEV registrations beginning in January 2022. While there are fluctuations among the months, the policies aimed at companies appear to have contributed to a rise in BEV adoption when considering the yearly averages.

Figure 2. Monthly BEV shares in new passenger car registrations in Belgium and selected policy measures

The Belgian case highlights that progressive and targeted government policies that both promote BEVs and discourage ICEVs can lead to a notable increase in new BEV registrations. It also illustrates the positive role that company cars can play in increasing the demand for electric vehicles and pulling a market toward faster electrification.
Author

Sandra Wappelhorst
Research Lead

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]]> European Market Monitor: Cars and vans (March 2025) https://theicct.org/publication/european-market-monitor-cars-and-vans-march-2025-apr25/ Wed, 30 Apr 2025 07:09:13 +0000 https://theicct.org/?post_type=publication&p=60993 European market monitor for cars and vans offers data on new registrations and estimates of manufacturers’ compliance with CO2 emission targets in February 2025.

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Passenger car registrations

The average share of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) among total new registrations in Europe was 16% in March 2025, the same as in February 2025. The BMW pool had the highest BEV share in March (25%) and was followed by the Mercedes-Volvo-Polestar (23%), Kia (19%), Hyundai (18%), and Volkswagen (17%) pools. The Tesla-Stellantis-Toyota pool (14% BEV share) was below the European average, as were Renault (12%), SAIC (8%), and Nissan (6%). Shares of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) in new registrations in Europe increased slightly to 8% in March, led by the Mercedes-Volvo-Polestar pool with a 23% PHEV share. SAIC had the largest share of full hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) in March, 41%, and that was a 24 percentage point increase over the 2024 average share. The BMW and Mercedes-Volvo-Polestar pools and Nissan led in new registration shares of mild hybrid electric vehicles (MHEVs) at 37%.
Figure 1. Share of battery electric in new passenger car registrations in Europe

Figure 2. Average CO2 emissions of manufacturer pools and individual manufacturers compared with estimated 2025 targets, 2025 YTD

Note: Note: Includes compliance credits. All CO2 values are estimates according to the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP). Only manufacturer pools and individual manufacturers with at least 1% market share YTD are shown. See the section on definitions, data sources, methodology, and assumptions for more.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions among manufacturer pools averaged 103 g CO2/km in March 2025. As a result, manufacturing pools remain 10 g CO2/km from the average target of 93 g CO2/km for 2025. The Hyundai and Tesla-Stellantis-Toyota pools reduced their target gaps significantly compared with the previous month, by 25% and 13%, respectively. The BMW pool is currently in compliance with its 2025 target, while Nissan (29 g CO2/km above) is the farthest from reaching its target.

Looking at individual car brands with market shares of 1% or larger, apart from Tesla, Volvo had the greatest over-compliance at 29 g CO2/km below its projected brand-level target for 2025 and was followed by Cupra (19 g CO2/km below target). While Audi’s target gap remains sizable at 30 CO2/km, that is a 3 g CO2/km reduction from the previous month. Ford (26 CO2/km) and Mercedes-Benz (24 CO2/km), also among the highest-emitting brands, reduced their target gaps by 2 CO2/km each. Nissan’s target gap increased by 3 CO2/km in March compared with the previous month, and reached 29 CO2/km.

Table 1. Share of battery electric, plug-in hybrid, full hybrid, and mild hybrid passenger cars by manufacturer pool or large manufacturer not forming a pool
Table 2. Fleet-average CO2 emissions of new passenger cars and market share by manufacturer pool or large manufacturer not forming a pool
Table 3. Fleet-average CO2 emissions of new passenger cars and market share by manufacturer group and brand

Passenger car registrations by country

Looking at the major European markets, total passenger car registrations in France and the Netherlands fell 15% in March compared with March 2024, and Italy surpassed France in market size. New registrations increased 24% in Spain and 19% in Czechia compared with the same month in the previous year. Combined BEV and PHEV market shares averaged 24% in Europe in March 2025, up 1 percentage point from February 2025. Norway (95%), Denmark (68%), Sweden (58%), and the Netherlands (53%) all had shares above 50%, and Belgium (41%), Austria (30%), and Germany (27%) also recorded combined BEV and PHEV market shares above the average for Europe. Among the largest markets, the highest increase in BEV registrations occurred in Czechia, Spain, and Italy, where registrations increased 261%, 94%, and 78%, respectively, in March 2025 compared with March 2024; meanwhile, registrations in France and the Netherlands decreased 14% compared with March 2024. Over 42,000 BEVs were registered last month in Germany, Europe’s largest market, and that was up 35% over March 2024. The largest year-over-year increase in PHEV registrations was in Czechia (+90% over March 2024) and HEV registrations increased the most in Spain (+34%). Shares of MHEVs were highest in Italy (32%) and Poland (30%) in March 2025, and they are gaining popularity in France and Spain, where registrations increased 59% (France) and 52% (Spain) in March 2025 compared with March 2024.

Figure 3. Share of plug-in hybrid and battery electric passenger cars by country, including information on market size (total new car registrations)

Note: “Other” includes EEA countries not individually highlighted in the figure, except for Bulgaria, Liechtenstein, and Malta.

Table 4. New passenger car registrations by country

Table 5. New battery electric, plug-in hybrid, hybrid, and mild hybrid passenger car registrations by country
Table 6. Share of new battery electric, plug-in hybrid, full hybrid, and mild hybrid passenger cars by country

Passenger car registrations by owner

Private cars made up over 40% of new registrations in Europe in 2024, and these were followed by company fleets with 36%, and then car dealers and manufacturers and short-term rentals, which made up 14% and 9% of the total registrations, respectively. Short-term rental registrations fluctuated more than other owner types; they ranged from nearly 13% of sales in May 2024 to only 5% in October 2024. In February 2025, the split of new registrations by owner type largely mirrored that of February 2024.

Figure 4. New passenger car registrations by owner for 19 select European countries

Van registrations

Over 346,000 new vans were registered in Europe in the first quarter of 2025, a 13% decrease over the same period in 2024. Of newly registered vans, 9% were battery electric; in the first quarter of 2024, 6% of new vans were battery electric. Nissan (13%), the Volkswagen pool (12%), Toyota (11%), and the Renault (10%) and Stellantis (9%) pools all had BEV shares at or above the European average; the Mercedes-Benz (7%) and Ford (4%) pools and Iveco (1%) were below the European average. Looking at the largest markets, shares of battery electric vans increased by 1 to 2 percentage points in the first quarter of 2025 compared with the same period in 2024. None of the manufacturers are currently on track to meet their CO2 targets for 2025 and the average target gap is 18 g CO2/km. Among manufacturers and manufacturer pools, Iveco and the Ford and Mercedes-Benz pools are currently the farthest from their 2025 CO2 targets, with respective target gaps of 35, 33, and 32 g CO2/km.

Table 7. Share of battery electric, plug-in hybrid, full hybrid, and mild hybrid vans by manufacturer pool or large manufacturer not forming a pool
Table 8. Fleet-average CO2 emissions of new vans and market share by manufacturer pool or large manufacturer not forming a pool
Table 9. New van registrations by country

Table 10. Share of battery electric, plug-in hybrid, full hybrid, and mild hybrid vans by country

Charging infrastructure development

Over 1 million public charging points were installed in Europe by the end of the first quarter of 2025, up from around 950,000 at the end of 2024. For alternating current (AC) charging, this represents a 28% increase compared with the same point in 2024. Direct current (DC) charging points showed even greater growth, increasing 54% compared with the first quarter of 2024. Approximately 81% of Europe’s public charging points supply AC, and the remaining 19% supply DC. Denmark recorded the largest growth in DC chargers by the end of the first quarter of 2025, +104% compared with the first quarter of 2024, and was followed by Belgium, which recorded a substantial increase in both DC and AC publicly accessible charging points (+92% and +60%, respectively). There were on average about 7.2 publicly accessible 22 kW-equivalent charging points installed per thousand passenger cars and vans on the road in Europe at the end of March 2025, up from 6.5 at the end of 2024. With nearly 46 publicly accessible 22 kW-equivalent charging points per thousand passenger cars and vans, Norway continues to lead Europe in charging infrastructure and is followed by Iceland (35), Denmark (30), and Sweden (22). Italy (3) and Spain (3) remain well below the European average.

Figure 5. 22 kW-equivalent publicly accessible charging points installed per thousand passenger cars and vans, by type of power output and country by the end of March 2025

Note: The width of the bars provides information on passenger car and van stock size estimates as of the end of 2024. 22 kW-equivalent is used to account for different power outputs while allowing for comparison among countries.

Table 11. Number of publicly accessible charging points installed, by country and type of power output
Definitions, data sources, methodology, and assumptions
  • Manufacturer pools: Automakers are allowed to form pools to jointly comply with CO2 targets. For this publication, the 2025 pools listed in the European Commission’s “M1 pooling list” (cars) and “N1 pooling list” (vans), version of 15 March 2025, are used. 2024 closed pools from these lists have been carried over into 2025, even in the absence of a 2025 formal declaration, as they typically remain stable due to ongoing commercial affiliations (e.g., the BMW, Hyundai, and Kia pools). In contrast, only open pools that have been confirmed for 2025 are included, as their composition tends to change more frequently than closed pools. Additionally, it is assumed that the Renault Group forms closed passenger car and van pools in 2025 with its affiliated manufacturers. For cars, the main brands are: BMW pool (BMW, Mini), Hyundai pool (Hyundai), Kia pool (Kia), Mercedes-Volvo-Polestar pool (Mercedes-Benz, Polestar, Smart, Volvo), Renault pool (Dacia, Renault), Tesla-Stellantis-Toyota pool (Citroën, Fiat, Ford, Jeep, Mazda, Opel, Peugeot, Suzuki, Tesla, Toyota), Volkswagen (Audi, Cupra, Porsche, SEAT, Škoda, VW). For vans, the main brands are: Ford pool (Ford), Mercedes-Benz pool (Mercedes-Benz, Mitsubishi Fuso), Renault pool (Renault), Stellantis pool (Citroën, Fiat, Opel, Peugeot), Volkswagen pool (MAN, Volkswagen). Nissan and SAIC are large passenger car manufacturers not part of a pool. Similarly, Iveco, Nissan, and Toyota are large van manufacturers not part of a pool. 
  • Abbreviations: AC = alternating current; CO2 = carbon dioxide emissions; DC = direct current; g/km = grams per kilometer; YTD = year-to-date; ZLEV = zero- and low-emission vehicle. 
  • Technical scope: This publication focuses on new passenger car and van registrations. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are powered exclusively by an electric motor, with no additional source of propulsion. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) combine a conventional combustion engine with an electric propulsion system that can be recharged via an external power source. Hybrid electric vehicles here include full hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and mild hybrid electric vehicles (MHEVs). HEVs and MHEVs integrate two propulsion systems, usually a combustion engine and an electric propulsion system that cannot be recharged via an external power source. Key differences between HEVs and MHEVs are the system voltage and system power. This enables HEVs to drive partially pure electric, while the electric propulsion system of MHEVs is typically only capable of assisting the combustion engine. For more on HEVs and MHEVs see: Jan Dornoff et al., Mild-Hybrid Vehicles: A Near Term Technology Trend for CO2 Emissions Reduction (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2022), https://theicct.org/publication/mild-hybrid-emissions-jul22/. 
  • Geographic scope: The European CO2 regulation for vehicle manufacturers applies to all countries of the European Economic Area (EEA). This includes the 27 Member States of the European Union plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway. Data for new car and van registrations and shares of electric vehicles in this publication cover all of these countries, with the exception of Liechtenstein and Malta. Data for CO2 emission levels additionally omits Bulgaria and Romania. Charging infrastructure data are presented for the 27 EU members plus the four European Free Trade Association countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland).  
  • Data sources: Dataforce (new vehicle registrations), Eco-Movement (charging points), European Environment Agency (vehicle mass and eco-innovation credits). 
  • Results may change over time: Registrations and/or CO2 data may be retrospectively updated by some of the national type-approval authorities. Similarly, charging infrastructure data may also be retrospectively updated by Eco-Movement. Historical values are regularly updated to reflect all latest data available. 
  • Test procedures: CO2 values are provided according to the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP). 
  • Flexible compliance mechanisms: To facilitate meeting their CO2 targets, manufacturers can make use of a number of compliance mechanisms: (1) Manufacturers can reduce their CO2 level by up to 6 g/km by deploying eco-innovation technologies. As a conservative estimate, we apply the 2023 level of eco-innovation CO2 emission reductions per brand. For more on the methodology used, see: Uwe Tietge, Peter Mock, and Jan Dornoff, Overview and Evaluation of Eco-Innovations in European Passenger Car CO2 Standards (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2018), https://theicct.org/publications/eco-innovations-european-passenger-car-co2-standards; (2) If a manufacturer’s ZLEV share exceeds 25% (cars) or 17% (vans), its CO2 target is increased by the same number of percentage points, up to a maximum of 5%. This adjustment is referred to as the ZLEV factor, while the target before adjustment is called the manufacturer reference target. The manufacturer target is calculated by multiplying the reference target by the ZLEV factor. ZLEVs are BEVs and vehicles with CO2 emissions of 50 g/km (WLTP) or less. For details on the ZLEV factor mechanism, see: Jan Dornoff, CO2 Emission Standards for New Passenger Cars and Vans in the European Union (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2023), https://theicct.org/publication/eu-co2-standards-cars-vans-may23/.  
  • Mass-based targets: For each manufacturer or manufacturer pool, a specific 2025 CO2 target value applies, depending on the average WLTP test mass of the new vehicles registered. For this publication, we assume the average WLTP test mass per manufacturer remains the same as in 2023; the average 2023 BEV and non-BEV test mass for each manufacturer was calculated based on EEA data and then weighted according to their year-to-date 2025 BEV market shares. For more on the methodology used, see: Uwe Tietge, Jan Dornoff, and Peter Mock, CO2 Emissions From New Passenger Cars in Europe: Car Manufacturers’ Performance in 2023 (International Council Clean Transportation, 2024), https://theicct.org/publication/co2-emissions-new-pv-europe-car-manufacturers-performance-2023-sept24/. 
  • Charging point: As defined in the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Regulation, a charging point “means a fixed or mobile interface that allows for the transfer of electricity to an electric vehicle, which, whilst it may have one or several connectors to accommodate different connector types, is capable of recharging only one electric vehicle at a time, and excludes devices with a power output less than or equal to 3.7 kW the primary purpose of which is not recharging electric vehicles.”   
  • Owner types: This publication considers four types of owners: private cars, company fleets, short-term rentals, and car dealers and manufacturers. The private car category includes all registrations under private individuals, including those of self-employed persons, provided the vehicles are not registered under a company name. Private leasing is also included. Company fleets encompass all vehicles registered to companies, excluding those intended for resale or rental. This category includes company and public administration fleets, commercial long-term rentals, commercial leases, taxis, driving schools, diplomats, etc. The size of the fleet and the extent to which the vehicles are used privately are not considered relevant. The short-term rentals type covers all registrations under large or small national and local rental companies. It also covers all vehicles flagged by authorities as being used for self-drive rental purposes. The car dealers and manufacturers type includes all vehicles registered by car dealers and manufacturers. For automakers, this includes vehicles used for press purposes as well as those for their employees. New registrations data by owner type is aggregated for the following 19 European countries: Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and United Kingdom. 

This publication is a collaboration between the ICCT, IMT-IDDRI, and ECCO think tank.

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]]> U.S. sales of electric vehicles by automaker, excluding Tesla, 2011–2024 https://theicct.org/viz-us-sales-of-evs-by-automaker-2011-2024/ Tue, 29 Apr 2025 00:55:45 +0000 https://theicct.org/?p=61624 In 2024, non-Tesla EV sales grew by 20% compared with 2023, reaching about 960,000 and continuing a trend of automakers other than Tesla collectively gaining a larger share of the new EV market. However, as the top EV seller, Tesla’s 5% decrease in sales in 2024 slowed the growth rate of the overall EV market. […]

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In 2024, non-Tesla EV sales grew by 20% compared with 2023, reaching about 960,000 and continuing a trend of automakers other than Tesla collectively gaining a larger share of the new EV market. However, as the top EV seller, Tesla’s 5% decrease in sales in 2024 slowed the growth rate of the overall EV market. The resulting market share of EVs increased by about 0.4% compared with 2023. Among legacy automakers, only Volkswagen and Stellantis posted net decreases in new EV sales in 2024, while BMW and Mercedes-Benz both saw virtually no change in their 2024 EV sales compared with 2023. All legacy automakers except Volkswagen and Stellantis had their best year for EV sales in 2024 and collectively grew their EV sales by 20%.

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]]> U.S. passenger electric vehicle sales and model availability through 2024 https://theicct.org/publication/us-passenger-ev-sales-and-model-availability-through-2024-apr25/ Mon, 28 Apr 2025 20:01:54 +0000 https://theicct.org/?post_type=publication&p=60522 This market spotlight details the current and projected expansion of the passenger electric vehicle market in the United States, accounting for 2024 sales, model availability, and future product plans.

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The electric vehicle (EV) market reached 1.56 million EV sales and a 10% sales share of all light-duty vehicles in 2024. By 2024, a third of automakers offered at least nine EV models, but most growth in model availability occurred in 2021 and 2022. Few new models were introduced in 2023 and 2024, and most were priced above $55,000. The EV market, which consists of battery electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, increased from 2% of new light-duty vehicle sales in 2020 to 10% in 2024.

Figure 1. Sales of battery electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles in the United States, 2020–2024

Sales by automaker

In 2024, non-Tesla EV sales grew by 20% compared with 2023, reaching about 960,000 and continuing a trend of automakers other than Tesla collectively gaining a larger share of the new EV market. However, as the top EV seller, Tesla’s 5% decrease in sales in 2024 slowed the growth rate of the overall EV market. The resulting market share of EVs increased by about 0.4% compared with 2023. Among legacy automakers, only Volkswagen and Stellantis posted net decreases in new EV sales in 2024, while BMW and Mercedes-Benz both saw virtually no change in their 2024 EV sales compared with 2023. All legacy automakers except Volkswagen and Stellantis had their best year for EV sales in 2024 and collectively grew their EV sales by 20%.

Figure 2. U.S. sales of electric vehicles by automaker, excluding Tesla, 2011–2024

Model availability

Model availability grew from under 20 in 2012 to nearly 130 in 2024, which mirrors the growth in annual EV sales.

In 2020, automakers offered nine or fewer EV models. By 2024, a third of automakers offered at least nine models, and two thirds offered three or more models. However, most of this growth happened in 2021 and 2022, with most automakers offering only one additional model or fewer in 2023 and 2024. Less than one quarter of all 2024 models and subconfigurations were EVs. For cars, EVs made up about 18% of all models. Electric pickup models accounted for 20% of all pickups, and about a quarter of all SUV models were EVs.

Around 3% of EV models available in 2024 were offered below $35,000 (before purchase incentives), 34% of EV models were offered at prices between $35,000 and $55,000, and 64% of models were offered above $55,000. In contrast, among combustion vehicles, 16% of models were priced $35,000 or less, 48% were between $35,000 and $55,000, and 36% of models were more than $55,000.

Figure 3. Annual electric vehicle sales and number of available electric vehicle models in the United States, 2012–2024

Future product plans

Many automakers have announced plans to expand their EV offerings, with at least 25 non-luxury EV models slated for arrival in 2025–2028. At least 25 more luxury offerings are also planned.

Seven automakers selling in the United States have EV sales targets of at least 50% by 2030. Four automakers that collectively represented over 30% of the U.S. market in 2024 have committed to 100% EV sales by 2035. Several other automakers have committed to lesser levels of EV sales shares in 2030 and 2035. From 2020 to 2024, EV sales averaged 47% growth annually. The average annual rate of EV growth needed to meet the commitments are 26% for 2024–2030 and 19% for 2024–2035.

Table 1. Upcoming non-luxury electric models of passenger vehicles

Regulatory text

California’s zero-emission vehicle regulation—which has been adopted by 16 states and the District of Columbia—covers more than 40% of the new light-duty vehicle market. This regulation requires increasing sales of zero-emission vehicles to meet progressively more stringent sales targets. Thus, California’s regulation provides a clear market signal to support automaker investments in developing new light-duty vehicle models. Additionally, the new-vehicle regulations promulgated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency will encourage automakers to produce and sell more EVs as a way to reduce overall new-vehicle average carbon dioxide emissions. The increased stringency of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulation helps automakers to be confident that their current and future EV production plans will be worth the investment.

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]]> Zero-emission vehicle phase-ins: Zero-emission zones (April 2025) https://theicct.org/zero-emission-vehicle-phase-ins-zero-emission-zones-april-2025/ Fri, 25 Apr 2025 19:02:42 +0000 https://theicct.org/?p=62021 Highlights cities with implemented and planned zero-emission zones (ZEZs) and near-ZEZs globally. Status: Through April 2025.

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]]> Zero-emission vehicle phase-ins: Passenger cars and vans/light trucks (April 2025) https://theicct.org/zero-emission-vehicle-phase-ins-passenger-cars-and-vans-light-trucks-april-2025/ Fri, 25 Apr 2025 14:08:31 +0000 https://theicct.org/?p=62096 The post Zero-emission vehicle phase-ins: Passenger cars and vans/light trucks (April 2025) appeared first on International Council on Clean Transportation.

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]]> U.S. charging infrastructure deployment through 2024 https://theicct.org/publication/us-charging-infrastructure-deployment-through-2024-apr25/ Thu, 24 Apr 2025 15:30:38 +0000 https://theicct.org/?post_type=publication&p=60197 This market spotlight highlights the growth, distribution patterns, and investments of non-home electric vehicle chargers in the United States through 2024.

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Overview

Approximately 204,000 public chargers and publicly accessible workplace chargers for light-duty vehicles had been deployed across the United States as of the end of 2024. From 2019 to 2024, the deployment rate of this non-home charging infrastructure for light-duty electric vehicles (EVs) grew about 25% annually. This is roughly equivalent to estimates of the growth rate needed in annual charging deployment to support continued expansion of the EV market. Charging deployment has not been uniform across the United States, and more chargers have been deployed in states with the most EV sales. Publicly announced investments in charging infrastructure from retailers, automakers, and charging providers sum up to 164,000 new DC fast chargers and 1.5 million new Level 2 chargers in the years ahead. These investments cover a substantial share of the chargers that we estimate will be needed by 2030.

Non-home charger deployment

About 6.3 million light-duty EVs had been sold and 204,000 non-home chargers deployed across the United States by the end of 2024 (Figure 1). In 2024, new EV sales surpassed 1.5 million, representing about 10% of all new light-duty vehicles sold in the United States. In 2024, more than 40,000 new non-home chargers were deployed, which was more than any other year. From 2019 to 2024, the rate of charging infrastructure deployment grew about 25% annually, which is roughly equivalent to estimates of the annual charging deployment growth rate needed to support continued EV market growth to 55 million electric vehicles on U.S. roads in 2032.

Total non-home charging deployment increased from 151,000 in June 2023 to 204,000 in 2024, a 35% increase. In that time span, the number of Level 2 chargers went from about 118,000 to 153,000, a 29% increase, and DC fast chargers increased from about 33,000 to 51,000, a 56% increase.

Figure 1. Cumulative U.S. sales of light-duty electric vehicles and deployment of non-home chargers, 2011 through 2024

Charger deployment by state

Charging deployment has not been uniform across the United States, and a larger number of chargers have been deployed in the states with the most EV sales (Figure 2.1). The ratio of non-home chargers per million residents ranges from 164 (Louisiana) to 1,738 (Vermont). The top 10 states in per capita charging deployment are Vermont, the District of Columbia, California, Massachusetts, Colorado, Connecticut, Washington, Maine, Oregon, and Maryland. Vermont, the District of Columbia, California, Colorado, Washington, Oregon, and Maryland are also in the top 10 in terms of EV market share.

The ratio of EVs to non-home chargers ranges from about 9 to about 47, with an average of 22 (Figure 2.2). Ratios vary significantly by locale and are dependent on various factors including the prevalence of home charging access, charger utilization, and the rated power of chargers.

Figure 2.1. Non-home chargers per million residents by state in 2024

Figure 2.2. Electric vehicles per non-home charger by state in 2024

Future charging investment

Publicly available announcements from retailers, automakers, and charging providers sum up to 164,000 new DC fast chargers and 1.5 million new Level 2 chargers for light-duty vehicles in the years ahead. These investments cover a substantial share of the chargers we estimate will be needed by 2030—about 182% of the needed DC fast chargers and about 62% of the needed Level 2 chargers (Figure 3). In terms of total charging capacity, this amount of charging represents 96% of non-home charging capacity needed in 2030. Potential additional charging deployments announced by the federal government, state authorities, or utilities (i.e., the hatched portions of the bar chart) could provide up to 47,000 more DC fast chargers and 579,000 more Level 2 chargers, although it is unclear to what extent these announcements overlap with announcements from private stakeholders. In addition, other non-disclosed future charging investments would further add to the charging infrastructure network.

Figure 3. Non-home EV chargers needed by 2030 compared with announced deployments

Terminology and data sources

An electric vehicle in this spotlight refers to light-duty vehicles with propulsion powered solely or mostly by electric motors.  

A Level 2 charger is a power supply device that provides alternating current (AC) electricity to electric vehicles at a rated power level between 3 kW and 19 kW. 

A DC fast charger (DCFC) is a power supply device that provides direct current (DC) electricity to electric vehicles at a rated power level of 50 kW or above. 

NEVI plans are the deployment plans developed by each state for spending federal funds from the National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure (NEVI) Formula Program to build charging networks in their states. 

ZEV states are the states that have adopted any part of California’s regulations on zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs). These regulations include a suite of policies designed to increase sales of ZEVs and to support their wide-scale adoption and use. This program includes Advanced Clean Cars II, which requires that 100% of new light-duty vehicle sales are zero-emission by 2035. The Clean Air Act allows for other states to adopt California’s ZEV regulations. Non-ZEV states are those that have not adopted California’s ZEV regulations. 

Data on electric vehicle sales: Argonne National Laboratory, Light-Duty Electric Drive Vehicles Monthly Sales Updates – Historical Data, accessed February 28, 2025, https://www.anl.gov/esia/reference/light-duty-electric-drive-vehicles-monthly-sales-updates-historical-data. 

Data on charging infrastructure: U.S. Department of Energy Alternative Fuels Data Center, Alternative Fueling Station Locator, accessed February 17, 2025, https://afdc.energy.gov/stations#/find/nearest?country=US. 

Data on state-level electric vehicle market shares: Atlas Public Policy’s EV Hub, EV Market Dashboard (2025), https://www.atlasevhub.com/market-data/ev-market-dashboard/. 

Findings on future charging infrastructure needs compared with announced charging infrastructure deployment and historical charging infrastructure growth: Logan Pierce and Peter Slowik, Assessment of U.S. electric vehicle charging needs and announced deployments through 2032 (Internation Council on Clean Transportation, 2024), https://theicct.org/publication/assessment-of-us-ev-charging-needs-and-announced-deployment-through-2032-mar24/.  

 

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